In previous posts, we have explored many of the Theravadin Buddhist structures within the Angkor area, particularly Angkor Thom, which were created possibly in the last stages of the Angkor era (around the 14th century) into the post-Angkor era (15th century and beyond) as Theravdin Buddhism became the state religion which it remains till this day. So, how about remnants and sites of this era outside Angkor?
Let’s explore, as this era is just as exciting as the Angkor era, perhaps even more so for those of the Buddhist faith.
At the time of writing, I believe there is a large research project underway led by Cambodia’s Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts into the post-Angkor era along with ongoing research in Angkor itself, and the topic seems to have gathered the interest it deserves.
In my mind at least there is an epic story to be unraveled here, as a nation moved from cult to community and the Buddhist Dharma spread to all corners of the region, as it did across the whole of South East Asia. The era is often viewed as a time of instability and great conflict, perhaps a weakened state, but that view very much overlooks the stability and growth of the Dhamma. Looking at it from another lens, some may like to call it the era of enlightenment, with very rich tales to tell.
For a qualified history let’s eagerly await the research findings that will no doubt come in time. In the meantime, let’s take a look at all the sites encountered in the last three years of traveling around this amazing land and give them a little context.
The Trail
As mentioned, the Angkor area and in particular Angkor Thom contains a large number of preserved archeological sites related to Thervadin Buddhist practice generally formed by recycling materials from prior temple sites into the form of a Vihara, a simple low-height, elongated terrace facing east with an alter at its western end, often surrounded by sema stones delimiting the sacred area and sometimes into Chedi. Those we have introduced previously here and there’s a lot of ongoing research there and in the Pouk area.
Now let’s head out of Angkor, and the scope here is sites that appear (by lay observation) to have late Angkorian Thervadin era heritage, and those with post-Angkorian heritage from the 15th century and through to the French era around the 19th century, an era that is often referred to as the post-Angkor era, the Middle period, or Early modern period.
These sites were visited over the past 2-3 years along the route to ancient sites stopping wherever possible to visit pagodas in between. As you’ll notice and perhaps expect, the development of Theravadin sites almost exclusively took place along the routes of, and at the location of prior ancient sites from earlier eras. The present-day National Road 6, which replicates the ancient royal road in part, is akin to a Buddhist superhighway and likewise with the Mekong river, especially from Stung Treng to Phnom Penh.
First, let me note that whilst some of these sites are clearly identifiable and many well-noted as being from the post-Angkor era, for others, I am speculating, as most have been developed over time and it’s quite hard to know by observation alone apart from clues such as ancient recycled materials, older style sema etc. I’d also be quite sure there are many sites not recognised in our travels, and even more that are yet to be visited by us, the broader Longvek-Oudong area as one example.
In the meantime, we can certainly admire this wonderful heritage trail of the 14-19th century and the emergence of Buddhism as we know it here today.
Some of the standout sites from our travels to date
Wat Tralaeng Kaeng – Longvek is an important capital from the post-Angkor era with a multitude of significant sites (mostly of archaeological value) with a highlight of the area today being the beautiful Wat Tralaeng Kaeng. A contemporary and very important monastery that houses remnants of the ancient era. The large grounds feature two pagodas while ancient remains include a laterite base beneath the older of the two pagodas, ornate sema stones, and sandstone fragments.
Phnom Oudong – Located around 40 km north of Phnom Penh in Kandal Province, Oudong became the capital of Cambodia after it shifted from nearby Longvek in 1618 AD and was the seat of power for over two centuries. Featuring a multitude of stunning stupas, shrines, pagodas, and the incredible Buddha Nirvana which is one of the great wonders of the era.
Wat Phnom and the pagodas of Phnom Penh – the very sacred mountain at the heart of Phnom Penh, featuring several important stupas and a quite stunning pagoda. Other notable pagodas of the era include Wat Ounalom, Wat Botum, Wat Langka, and Wat Saravan.
Wat Preah Theat (Phnom Penh) – located on the outskirts of Phnom Penh, it was an ancient site that now features two very beautiful pagodas and a wonderous collection of remnants from the ancient site. It would appear to also have a heritage in the post-Angkorian period according to historical notes.
Wat Phneat Sampily – another beautiful pagoda with a stunning stupa, by anecdotal reports, it too likely has heritage from the era
Ta Prohm of Tonle Bati – Late Angkorian-era site that was also seemingly used for religious practice in the Post-Angkor era sharing some stylistic similarities with modifications made here and within Angkor.
Prasat Kuk Nokor – is another example of an Angkorian-era site that was also used for religious practice in the Post-Angkor era.
Prasat Nokor Bachey – is a beautiful ancient 12th-century site that was elegantly converted into a stupa-vihara around the 16th century.
Phnom Santuk, Phnom Sruoch, Wat Kakoh, and Srah Khchau Temple – atop Phnom Santuk, a duo of pagodas flanked by an array of Buddhist rock carvings including a large reclining Buddha. A quite special place and the surrounding sites of Phnom Srouch and Srah Khchau are also quite wonderous.
Preah Khan of Kampong Svay – the massive complex that has Angkorian heritage from the 11th to 13th century also hosts several remnants of remodeling to suit Theravadin practices, including the chambering of the outer western gopura, the reclining Buddha carving of the 2nd enclosure, and the square terrace demarcated by slab-style sema at Toek Khuob on the western side of the complex near to the ancient Royal Road.
Preah Theat Khvav – is an ancient site that was remodeled into a stupa-vihara and demarcated by sema. It’s only in recent years that the original terrace of the vihara, formed of laterite, was concreted over into a more contemporary pagoda. It’s also host to one of the fascinating inscriptions of the late Angkor era and early Thervadin era registered under K. 177.
Preah Theat Baray – another ancient site that was remodeled into a stupa-vihara.
Wat Sithor, Wat Prey Baing, and Wat Meban – an important trio of pagodas. Wat Sithor is home to the grand stupa-vihara and several other stupa/chedi while Meban houses one of the artistic wonders of the era, a grand reclining Buddha with carved feet and a stupa inside the pagoda, outside, another important stupa, all of which are believed to date to around the 17th century.
Wat Sambor, Wat Vihear Kuk, Wat Phum Sambok – it is fascinating to travel along the Mekong, visiting pagodas along the way, and from Krong Kracheh to Sambor there are a string of interesting sites, seemingly the most notable in this era are the three pagodas mentioned plus Phnom Sambok. Activity in the area is attributed to the very early 17th century along with having a pre-Angkorian heritage.
Wat Rokar Kandal – Located in the south of the city of Kratie, Wat Rokar is a small but charismatic pagoda that some date to the early 19th, others to the 18th century, also nearby, Wat Kracheh features a stupa significant to the era noting the two listed above forming a trio, “the three stupa of Kracheh”.
Phnom Neang Kang Buddha Nirvava, Wat Phnum Kuk, and Phnom Kachchot Borey – Located on the border of Pursat and Kampong Chhnang provinces, these three sites are quite interesting, one with a carving of a reclining Buddha, the other with a curious stupa, and a possible demarcated ritual area atop the mountain near Wat Phnom Kuk.
Bakan Temple and Don An Temple – located near each other in Pursat province they are both remodelled ancient sites.
That’s some of the highlights from a visitor’s perspective but there’s certainly much more. Here’s a map of those sites and around 140+ sites seen so far in our travels over the last three years that would appear to have a connection with this particular era.
Art and Architecture of the 14th to 19th
Whilst sites of the era certainly have a smaller footprint than prior eras and are noted for recycling materials and broad use of perishable materials, there is still plenty of interesting art to be seen. Determining what’s from this era and what’s from later eras for some items is alone an assumption.
Sema stones – more here
Buddhapadda – Sripada/Preas Bat, these are quite spectacular, with the prime examples being in situ at Wat Meban, Phnom Oudong, and those from Angkor Wat, now held in museums. In historical notes, you can find further examples and several sites around the country have Buddha footprints, Phnom Bakheng is an example, and another is Phnom Preah Net Preah. Note: Some researchers have dated the Buddhapada from Angkor Wat, held at Norodom Museum, to the 10th century or earlier. (Necoli 1924)
Reclining Buddhas the reclining Buddha or Buddha Nirvana is a recurring theme, the grand ones being atop Phnom Kulen, Phnom Santuk, Phnom Oudong, and Phnom Baset which I believe are all from the 17th century.
Stupa – Varying in size and slightly in style, from simple bell-shaped chedi/stupa to those with tiered, pyramidic bases rising up in a bell shape with a final spire. There’s quite a lot of work that could be done here, firstly building out history for each of these sites to date the stupa then recognise the styles of which, you could say there at three to four clear styles, maybe more. See all the sites, around 50+, visited to date with notable stupa here.
Statuary – Lacquered and gilded wood statues from the era can still be seen at Angkor National Museum and Preah Norodom Sihanouk Angkor Museum along with bronze statuary and sandstone pieces such as the stunning carved Buddhapada originating from Angkor Wat. Bronze works appear in historical notes, the pair pictured below from Wat Sambor with the author, Adhémard Leclère in the late 1800s, noting that he also found the original kiln near the monastery that was built by a Khmer king who moved away from invading forces and settled there, that point is somewhat interesting (reference is noted below). The small but wonderful museum in Kampong Thom holds several pieces from the era including wooden statuary, a sandstone Buddha on Naga, and a reclining Buddha fragment.
Of course, atop the balan (alter) of the pagoda there is always an array of Buddhist images, if any may be from the 14-19th c is hard for me to know, also, much would have been lost during the Khmer Rouge era.
The Phnom Penh National Museum also holds several pieces of bronze works, wood carvings, and a stunning wood-carved boat cabin dated between the 14-19th c, all discovered at different monasteries across the country and some from within Angkor.
The Guimet Museum in France also holds several pieces from the 15-16th c, including wooden statuary, a carved stele, and a fascinating pilaster in a post-Angkorian style that originates from the Elephants Terrace, and take note of the devata that’s still in situ on that terrace. Also, Preah Poan of Angkor Wat still holds several items as does the conservation depot in Siem Reap. Of course, there are many regional museums and pagodas that we have yet to visit, likely with much more to reveal.
Architecture – The early vihara or Buddhist terrace is a very modest construction but can support an array of ritual activities of the Buddhist community. This simple elongated terrace with a balan (alter) at one end supporting a Buddha image would give rise to larger but still quite moderate constructions on the same basic plan. Some also feature a chedi/stupa (often repurposing an existing temple) behind the terrace or stupa-vihara combo.
Below, Adhemard Leclere’s illustration from the 1900s of a Buddhist terrace layout, the second is a wonderful contemporary mural at Phnom Srei of its stupa-vihara under construction, the third picture is Wat Enteak Komar which perhaps closely resembles the evolution of the simple terrace into the pagodas of this 14-19th century period. The fourth image is the pagoda of Phnom Baset, a photo published around 1910. The fifth image of Wat Tuol Trac (Kampong Speu) was taken in 1935.
What is Theravada Buddhism? It may pay to demystify the term, it’s a lineage of Buddhism with counterparts including Mahayana and Vajrayana each with many subschools or branches. Theravada texts in use today are largely those translated into Pali by the 5th-century monk, Buddhagosa at the Maha Vihara in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, and are considered to be the closest to that of the original teachings of the Buddha. In Cambodia, there are two sects or branches of Theravada, the Dhammayuttika Nikaya and the Maha Nikaya, the latter being the larger group with many subgroups whilst the former is aligned to the Royal Court and strictly follows the original Pali Cannon.
Theravada Buddhism in Cambodia. A very brief intro – According to Chinese records, Mahayana Buddhism was prevalent in Cambodia as early as the 4-5th century, a Buddhist inscription whilst the records for Theravada Buddhism are not so clear (at least to this author at the present time). There are at least two inscriptions, one from Kampong Speu (K. 820) and another from the 7th century (K. 1455) inferring Theravadin Buddhism was in practice at that time, and most definitely within its possible vassals such as the Dvaravati around that same time, also, there are sema stones atop Phnom Kulen that are believed to belong to around the 9th century with links to that region.
Then, there are the inscriptions on sema of a site Aymonier recorded as “Hin Kon” featuring, as he recorded, a dozen “boundary markers” demarcating an area ten meters in diameter, made of red sandstone and covered in eroded inscriptions. He notes the largest as featuring 72 lines of Sanskrit and Khmer. Aymonier attributed them to the seventh century. Coedes would later provide a translation of one of these inscriptions (K. 388/9) with researchers attributing them to being pre-Angkorian while other researchers speculated on them as being from Angkorian times. Notably, it mentions the foundation of a vihara, and the passage of a king, Nṛpendradhipativarman, through monkhood. The region hosts an array of sema-demarcated Theravadin Buddhist sites and temples of the Khmer period which, in centuries to follow, would become present-day northern Thailand.
Other research also mentions the journey of Tamilinda, possibly one of King Jayavarman VII’s sons, to the Maha Vihara monastery in Sri Lanka in the 13th century to study Theravada and it would seem at this point, that the seed had been firmly planted and the emergence of the Theravadin era had begun. It would become the state religion in the 14th century under the reign of King Indravarman III (reign c.1295 to 1308 AD) with the famed Chinese missionary, Zhou Daguan, noting the prevalence of Pali Monks along with epigraphic evidence, notably the inscriptions of Kok Svay Chek (K. 754), Preah Theat Khvav (K. 177), and Prasat Kombot (K. 144).
From the time of Indravarman III in the early 14th century till the beginning of the French Protectorate in the late 19th century there were near to 50 different kings, but regardless Buddhism remained at the core barring a short interlude by one king in the 17th century. As well noted, several ancient sites within Angkor were remodeled into simple terraces for Thervadin purposes.
Notably, in the 15th century, it is said that a group of monks once again headed to Sri Lanka to be ordained, and under the reign of King Ang Chan (1516-1566 AD) and around that time, the simple Buddhist terraces were evolving into the construction of pagodas like we know today, with the Wat becoming the center of community and education. Also around this time, there are also notable inscriptions at Wat Nokor (K. 82), and several at Angkor Wat.
Today, it’s noted by the Ministry of Culture that there are over 5000 pagodas across Cambodia. Over the last three years, I think we have only visited around 600 pagodas (here), so, we can be sure there are still many fascinating sites we’ve yet to cover.
For a concise history of the 14-19th century, we need to await the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts and the outcome of their latest research, although there are certainly many interesting historical publications, some are conflicting and much debated, and I’ll note those at the bottom of the page if you wish to take a deeper dive, although, I would suggest they are soon going to be superseded by new research taking place.
*As more is discovered, I’ll add it here, and I’ll likely need to make some corrections as time goes on.
* 31/03 – added some info on K.388, K.820, K. 1455.
* 13/01/24 – added the historical photo of the pagoda at Phnom Baset
Further reading (for me too!)
- Histoire du Cambodge de la fin du XVIe au début du XVIIIe siècle. In: Bulletin de l’Ecole française d’Extrême-Orient. Vickery Michael. Mak Phoeun, Tome 83, 1996. pp. 405-415.
- Histoire du Cambodge de la fin du XVIe au début du XVIIIe siècle, Mak Phoeun, 1995
- Buddhism in Cambodia, Ian Harris, 2005
- Brief History of Buddhism in Cambodia – Bhikku Sophan Seng (Vodano), Sophan Seng
- Mémoire sur une charte de fondation d’un monastère bouddhique où il est question du roi du Feu et du roi de l’Eau. In: Comptes rendus des séances de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 47ᵉ année, N. 4, Leclère Adhémar, 1903. pp. 369-378.
- Angkor and Cambodia in the Sixteenth Century, B.P Groslier, 1958 (English reprint in 2018)
- Chroniques royales du Cambodge (de 1594 à 1677), Mak Phoeun/EFEO, 1981
- East and West – New Inscriptions from Funan, Zhenla and Dvāravatī. Dominic Goodall, Nicolas Revire. Bulletin de l’Ecole française d’Extrême-Orient, 2021, 107 (2021), pp.257-301.
- New Light on Early Cambodian Buddhism, Nancy Dowling, 2000