Sima of the Ancient & Contemporary Khmer World

Sema (Sima/Siema) are the objects used to demarcate the sacred or ritual area of a Theravadin Buddhist site, a form of Buddhism unique to Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Laos, Burma, and Thailand, and also the current state religion of Cambodia today. Sema are commonly seen at many pagodas across Cambodia often as a leaf-shaped stone, sometimes with ornate reliefs or characters, and placed at cardinal and intercardinal points surrounding the sacred area. They are another wonder of Khmer art, and very much deserving of more appreciation and preservation (aka lodgement in the museum).

Buddhism, in differing schisms, has a long history in Cambodia dating back to the Funan Empire (1-6th century AD) and most widely recognised is the ascension of Mahayana Buddhism under Jayavarman VII (reign circa 1181–1218 AD). The practice of Theravadin Buddhism in Cambodia is a little less well known and is believed to have had its ascension in Cambodia around the late 13th century under King Indravarman III (reign 1295 to 1308 AD), while quite interestingly, the use of sema is seen as far back as the very origin of the Angkorian Empire in the early 9th century.

Atop Phnom Kulen, a site that dates back to the origin of the Angkorian Empire under Jayavarman II in the early 9th century known as Mahendraparvata, two sites exist with ancient sema stones demarcating a small ritual area (Boulbet/Dagens 1973, Latinis/Murphy 2017). The styles are noted as being akin to that of the Mon Dvaravati kingdom/culture of the 7-11th century, located roughly 200km to the northwest of Kulen, which was possibly absorbed into the Khmer Empire around the time of Suryavarman II. The first illustration below from the study by Boulbet/Dagens highlights how the sema are arranged around the sacred area, followed by a selection of illustrations of the beautifully carved sema stones. Some of these sema can still be seen in situ (see the first four photographs further below).

In Andrew Skilton’s publication, the Concise History of Buddhism, he mentions Theravadin Buddhism having origins linking back to Ashoka the Great, the Indian emperor of the Maurya Empire, and a key point in its history is the 4th Buddhist council in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in the 1st century BC, also noting the use of sima. Whilst, comparatively, a lot is known about Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism in the ancient Khmer Empire, little is recorded about the practice of Theravadin Buddhism in early and ancient times. That doesn’t mean it didn’t exist, it is quite possible due to lack of research, with the early French who quite rightly focussed on the grand temples of Angkor and perhaps the loss of records in the Khmer Rouge era. Another important point to consider is that ancient Theravadin sites are very easily lost to time due to their simplicity, possibly obscure locations (consider Wat Phnum Kuk), and even the use of wood in structures and wood/clay for demarcating, now all surely lost to time.

In the book, Buddhism in Cambodia, Ian Harris introduces the Buddhist relics found at Oc Eo and Angkor Borei dating back to the 5th century, the journey of the Buddhist monks from Funan to China in the 5-6th century, along with pre-Angkorian inscriptions noting Buddhist activity. Some of these inscriptions have been linked to Theravada, some seemingly more clearly so, and dating to the 7-8th century. Harris also notes the journey of one of the sons of King Jayavarman VII, to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in the 12th century, with a party of Mon (Burmese) monks to study Theravada where he was later ordained.

Some state that he, Prince Tamalinda, passed away on that journey and did not return to Angkor, other authors state that he returned and established Theravada practice in the royal court in the late 12th century. Upcoming publications might resolve that point.

Another book, History of Theravada Buddhism in South-East Asia by Kanai Lal Hazra, touches on the same topics while taking a deeper dive into Theravada Buddhism in Ceylon and its development across Burma, Cambodia, Laos, and more extensively on development in Siam (Thailand).

From what’s seen today, the use of sema stone appears to be prevalent again in the late/post-Angkor period (circa 14-15th century) as Theravada became the state religion. Sema stones are seen dispersed around ancient ruins and restored vihara throughout the four quadrants of Angkor Thom, some at nearby sites, and in two places at Angkor Wat. See the article here for more detail on what is often referred to as Buddhist Terraces, which, in several instances, are older Hindu monuments that have been rearranged to form a vihara. Important archeological research into these sites by the Angkor Vihara Project/APSARA is ongoing and excitingly looks to fill in a period in Khmer history of which little is presently known in this area of Angkor.

The community wat (pagoda and monastery) that we see today became prevalent around the 15th century and in many cases having been built atop earlier ancient sites continuing a seemingly Khmer tradition of site reuse. Many of the older pagoda/vihara sites feature sema (no recorded dates but I imagine them to be contemporary to the original site) carved from stone and quite ornate, examples being those at Wat Tralaeng Kaen, Wat Nokor Bachey, Prasat Kuk Nokor, Wat Preah Vihear Sour, Wat Enteak Komar, Phnom Srei for example, while some other older sites feature large plain sema of a “chunky” style similar to that seen at Angkor, and likely some more at places I have yet to encounter. The sema stored at Wat Kampong Thom are quite special, as is one sitting at a monastery in Banteay Meanchey, and the single sema stone stored at Prasat Soriya Rong Ko is also quite interesting.

In contemporary times, sema stone can be seen at many, but not all pagodas and have a very generic look with a leaf shape sometimes topped with a lotus bud and depicting Buddhist images, in many cases Preah Mae Thorani (Neang Konghing) and guardian devata in prayer are a quite popular depiction. Later sema are generally cast from cement. In some cases, sacred deposits (aka trinkets) are set in the ground beneath the sema. I am unsure as to whether they may have also buried a rounded stone beneath the sema as seen in neighboring countries (although likely remains of such have been seen) (yes they do, see update at the bottom of the page). Some pagodas have an extra sema, or in some cases, just the one sema, placed centrally and known as sema kil, in other places this position is unmarked featuring only buried deposits made at the time of the foundation of the pagoda.

Sema in situ

These photos come from exploring Angkor and traveling around all the standing ancient sites in Cambodia over the last three or so years, visiting pagodas along the way where possible (there are so many!!). The photos were taken from 2017 till the present date 2023.

According to the Ministry of Culture, there are almost 5000 pagodas in Cambodia, this sample is from around 200+ 450 pagodas visited so far, mostly along the RN 6, some along the RN 5, the RN 73/308, and other random places near ancient sites. As more are encountered I’ll add them here, and perhaps add some better shots of those more interesting.

Ancient Sema – at Sema Peam Gre (Kulen Mountain) – some of the original sema are still in situ, one is particularly ornate, and others are quite decayed. I am unsure of the location of the others as seen by Boulbert/Dagens in the 70s. Another site to the south is Sema Don Meas which I have yet to visit.

Sema of Angkor – many are big and bold, some small, with shapes, sizes, decoration (if any), and embellishments varying. The main vihara to see these in situ are Preah Ngok, Tep Pranam, Preah En Tep, Ang Kok Thlok, and Pram Pi Lven. A single sema stone can also be seen fronting the Leper King Terrace, one atop the Terrace of the Elephants (or stele?), and one fronting a stupa behind Preah Ngok. Sema stones can also be spotted around many of the archeological sites still set among the jungle areas of Angkor Thom, a couple of sites south of Angkor Thom, plus two sites on the grounds of Angkor Wat. There are also sema surrounding the remains of a Buddhist Terrace at Preah Khan plus two flanking a pedestal at Prasat Kravan. There are also older sema seen at Preah Enkosei, Wat Prom Rath, Wat Indakosa, Wat Po Banteaychey etc.. and as far east as Toek Khuob (Ta Seng village). A selection of those follows

Sema outside of Angkor – Some pictured here are contemporary while some give the impression of being quite old and perhaps have a greater story to tell about activity and patronage in the post-Angkor era, especially from Angkor along the RN6 section of the ancient Royal Road and down to Longvek/Udong. The shape and style certainly becomes more consistent and almost generic as time goes on.

Update 2023 – more sema stones from recent journeys

Base Sema

These are set at the time of consecrating (or reconsecrating after redevelopment) the pagoda in a ceremony (Khmer: ខណ្ឌសីមា) where the sema stones, or base/root sema (Khmer: រីសស៊ីម៉ា), are hung from a wooden pole via rope atop which a dignitary holds a sword which is in turn struck by a wooden mallet to cut the rope dropping the sema into the pit below which is later filled over. In recent travels, I was fortunate enough to come across a site where the sema had not been laid yet (first image) and another where they had just been dropped the day before (second and third image). There are several sites where these base sema from older viharas can be seen laying around the grounds and not reused in the redevelopment.

Related

• A Post-14th Century Buddhist Trail – Exploring the Wonder of the Khmer Thervadin Era
• Angkor Thom and its Lost World of Hidden Ancient Terraces
• Ancient Khmer Boundary Stones & Chaitya
• Map of Wats and Pagodas (we’ve visited/plan to visit)
• The Pagodas of Siem Reap
• Pagodas of Phnom Penh

References and further reading

• Sema Stones and Mountain Palaces from the Dawn of Angkor – Latinis/Murphy – 2017
• An Old Ritual Capital, a New Ritual Landscape: Understanding the Transformation of Angkor Thom, Cambodia through the Construction and Placement of Theravāda »Buddhist Terraces« – Andrew Harris – 2019
• An Ethnographic Study on the Reconstruction of Buddhist Practice in Two Cambodian Temples – Kobayashi Satoru – 2005
• Buddhism in Cambodia – Ian Harris – 2005
• History of Theravāda Buddhism in South-East Asia – Kanai Lal Hazra – 1981
• Les sites archéologiques de la région du Bhnaṃ Gūlen (Phnom Kulen) – Boulbet/Dagens – 1973

Post was updated 05/06/23 to add more images and add clarity, a further update with more images along with historical notes is planned